ASCD

October 2007 | Volume = 65 |=20 Number 2
Early Intervention at = Every=20 Age Pages 34-39

The wrong kind of praise = creates=20 self-defeating behavior. The right kind = motivates=20 students to learn.

We often hear these days = that we've=20 produced a generation of young people who can't = get=20 through the day without an award. They expect = success=20 because they're special, not because they've = worked=20 hard.

Is this true? Have we = inadvertently=20 done something to hold back our students?

I think educators commonly = hold two=20 beliefs that do just that. Many believe that (1) = praising students' intelligence builds their = confidence=20 and motivation to learn, and (2) students' = inherent=20 intelligence is the major cause of their = achievement in=20 school. Our research has shown that the first = belief is=20 false and that the second can be = harmful=E2=80=94even for the=20 most competent students.

As a psychologist, I have = studied=20 student motivation for more than 35 years. My = graduate=20 students and I have looked at thousands of = children,=20 asking why some enjoy learning, even when it's = hard, and=20 why they are resilient in the face of obstacles. = We have=20 learned a great deal. Research shows us how to = praise=20 students in ways that yield motivation and = resilience.=20 In addition, specific interventions can reverse = a=20 student's slide into failure during the = vulnerable=20 period of adolescence.

Fixed or Malleable?

Praise is intricately = connected to how=20 students view their intelligence. Some students = believe=20 that their intellectual ability is a fixed = trait. They=20 have a certain amount of intelligence, and = that's that.=20 Students with this fixed mind-set become = excessively=20 concerned with how smart they are, seeking tasks = that=20 will prove their intelligence and avoiding ones = that=20 might not (Dweck, 1999, 2006). The desire to = learn takes=20 a backseat.

Other students believe that = their=20 intellectual ability is something they can = develop=20 through effort and education. They don't = necessarily=20 believe that anyone can become an Einstein or a = Mozart,=20 but they do understand that even Einstein and = Mozart had=20 to put in years of effort to become who they = were. When=20 students believe that they can develop their=20 intelligence, they focus on doing just that. Not = worrying about how smart they will appear, they = take on=20 challenges and stick to them (Dweck, 1999, = 2006).

More and more research in = psychology=20 and neuroscience supports the growth mind-set. = We are=20 discovering that the brain has more plasticity = over time=20 than we ever imagined (Doidge, 2007); that = fundamental=20 aspects of intelligence can be enhanced through = learning=20 (Sternberg, 2005); and that dedication and = persistence=20 in the face of obstacles are key ingredients in=20 outstanding achievement (Ericsson, Charness, = Feltovich,=20 & Hoffman, 2006).

Alfred Binet (1909/1973), = the inventor=20 of the IQ test, had a strong growth mind-set. He = believed that education could transform the = basic=20 capacity to learn. Far from intending to measure = fixed=20 intelligence, he meant his test to be a tool for = identifying students who were not profiting from = the=20 public school curriculum so that other courses = of study=20 could be devised to foster their intellectual=20 growth.

The Two Faces of Effort

The fixed and growth = mind-sets create=20 two different psychological worlds. In the fixed = mind-set, students care first and foremost about = how=20 they'll be judged: smart or not smart. = Repeatedly,=20 students with this mind-set reject opportunities = to=20 learn if they might make mistakes (Hong, Chiu, = Dweck,=20 Lin, & Wan, 1999; Mueller & Dweck, = 1998). When=20 they do make mistakes or reveal deficiencies, = rather=20 than correct them, they try to hide them = (Nussbaum &=20 Dweck, 2007).

They are also afraid of = effort because=20 effort makes them feel dumb. They believe that = if you=20 have the ability, you shouldn't need effort = (Blackwell,=20 Trzesniewski, & Dweck, 2007), that ability = should=20 bring success all by itself. This is one of the = worst=20 beliefs that students can hold. It can cause = many bright=20 students to stop working in school when the = curriculum=20 becomes challenging.

Finally, students in the = fixed=20 mind-set don't recover well from setbacks. When = they hit=20 a setback in school, they decrease their = efforts=20 and consider cheating (Blackwell et al., 2007). = The idea=20 of fixed intelligence does not offer them viable = ways to=20 improve.

Let's get inside the head of = a student=20 with a fixed mind-set as he sits in his = classroom,=20 confronted with algebra for the first time. Up = until=20 then, he has breezed through math. Even when he = barely=20 paid attention in class and skimped on his = homework, he=20 always got As. But this is different. = It's hard.=20 The student feels anxious and thinks, = =E2=80=9CWhat if I'm not=20 as good at math as I thought? What if other kids = understand it and I don't?=E2=80=9D At some = level, he realizes=20 that he has two choices: try hard, or turn off. = His=20 interest in math begins to wane, and his = attention=20 wanders. He tells himself, =E2=80=9CWho cares = about this stuff?=20 It's for nerds. I could do it if I wanted to, = but it's=20 so boring. You don't see CEOs and sports stars = solving=20 for x and y.=E2=80=9D

By contrast, in the growth = mind-set,=20 students care about learning. When they make a = mistake=20 or exhibit a deficiency, they correct it = (Blackwell et=20 al., 2007; Nussbaum & Dweck, 2007). For = them, effort=20 is a positive thing: It ignites their=20 intelligence and causes it to grow. In the face = of=20 failure, these students escalate their efforts = and look=20 for new learning strategies.

Let's look at another = student=E2=80=94one who=20 has a growth mind-set=E2=80=94having her first = encounter with=20 algebra. She finds it new, hard, and confusing, = unlike=20 anything else she has ever learned. But she's = determined=20 to understand it. She listens to everything the = teacher=20 says, asks the teacher questions after class, = and takes=20 her textbook home and reads the chapter over = twice. As=20 she begins to get it, she feels exhilarated. A = new world=20 of math opens up for her.

It is not surprising, then, = that when=20 we have followed students over challenging = school=20 transitions or courses, we find that those with = growth=20 mind-sets outperform their classmates with fixed = mind-sets=E2=80=94even when they entered with = equal skills and=20 knowledge. A growth mind-set fosters the growth = of=20 ability over time (Blackwell et al., 2007; = Mangels,=20 Butterfield, Lamb, Good, & Dweck, 2006; see = also=20 Grant & Dweck, 2003).

The Effects of Praise

Many educators have hoped to = maximize=20 students' confidence in their abilities, their = enjoyment=20 of learning, and their ability to thrive in = school by=20 praising their intelligence. We've studied the = effects=20 of this kind of praise in children as young as 4 = years=20 old and as old as adolescence, in students in = inner-city=20 and rural settings, and in students of different = ethnicities=E2=80=94and we've consistently found = the same thing=20 (Cimpian, Arce, Markman, & Dweck, 2007; = Kamins &=20 Dweck, 1999; Mueller & Dweck, 1998): = Praising=20 students' intelligence gives them a short burst = of=20 pride, followed by a long string of negative=20 consequences.

In many of our studies (see = Mueller=20 & Dweck, 1998), 5th grade students worked on = a task,=20 and after the first set of problems, the teacher = praised=20 some of them for their intelligence = (=E2=80=9CYou must be smart=20 at these problems=E2=80=9D) and others for their = effort (=E2=80=9CYou=20 must have worked hard at these = problems=E2=80=9D). We then=20 assessed the students' mind-sets. In one study, = we asked=20 students to agree or disagree with mind-set = statements,=20 such as, =E2=80=9CYour intelligence is something = basic about you=20 that you can't really change.=E2=80=9D Students = praised for=20 intelligence agreed with statements like these = more than=20 students praised for effort did. In another = study, we=20 asked students to define intelligence. Students = praised=20 for intelligence made significantly more = references to=20 innate, fixed capacity, whereas the students = praised for=20 effort made more references to skills, = knowledge, and=20 areas they could change through effort and = learning.=20 Thus, we found that praise for intelligence = tended to=20 put students in a fixed mind-set (intelligence = is fixed,=20 and you have it), whereas praise for effort = tended to=20 put them in a growth mind-set (you're developing = these=20 skills because you're working hard).

We then offered students a = chance to=20 work on either a challenging task that they = could learn=20 from or an easy one that ensured error-free = performance.=20 Most of those praised for intelligence wanted = the easy=20 task, whereas most of those praised for effort = wanted=20 the challenging task and the opportunity to = learn.

Next, the students worked on = some=20 challenging problems. As a group, students who = had been=20 praised for their intelligence lost their = confidence in their ability and their enjoyment = of the=20 task as soon as they began to struggle with the = problem.=20 If success meant they were smart, then = struggling meant=20 they were not. The whole point of intelligence = praise is=20 to boost confidence and motivation, but both = were gone=20 in a flash. Only the effort-praised kids = remained, on=20 the whole, confident and eager.

When the problems were made = somewhat=20 easier again, students praised for intelligence = did=20 poorly, having lost their confidence and = motivation. As=20 a group, they did worse than they had done = initially on=20 these same types of problems. The students = praised for=20 effort showed excellent performance and = continued to=20 improve.

Finally, when asked to = report their=20 scores (anonymously), almost 40 percent of the=20 intelligence-praised students lied. Apparently, = their=20 egos were so wrapped up in their performance = that they=20 couldn't admit mistakes. Only about 10 percent = of the=20 effort-praised students saw fit to falsify their = results.

Praising students for their=20 intelligence, then, hands them not motivation = and=20 resilience but a fixed mind-set with all its=20 vulnerability. In contrast, effort or = =E2=80=9Cprocess=E2=80=9D praise=20 (praise for engagement, perseverance, = strategies,=20 improvement, and the like) fosters hardy = motivation. It=20 tells students what they've done to be = successful and=20 what they need to do to be successful again in = the=20 future. Process praise sounds like this:=20

You really studied for your English test, = and your=20 improvement shows it. You read the material = over=20 several times, outlined it, and tested = yourself on it.=20 That really worked!=20
I like the way you tried all kinds of = strategies=20 on that math problem until you finally got it. =
It was a long, hard assignment, but you = stuck to=20 it and got it done. You stayed at your desk, = kept up=20 your concentration, and kept working. That's = great!=20
I like that you took on that challenging = project=20 for your science class. It will take a lot of=20 work=E2=80=94doing the research, designing the = machine, buying=20 the parts, and building it. You're going to = learn a=20 lot of great things.

What about a student who = gets an=20 A without trying? I would say, = =E2=80=9CAll right, that=20 was too easy for you. Let's do something more=20 challenging that you can learn from.=E2=80=9D We = don't want to=20 make something done quickly and easily the basis = for our=20 admiration.

What about a student who = works hard=20 and doesn't do well? I would say, = =E2=80=9CI liked the=20 effort you put in. Let's work together some more = and=20 figure out what you don't understand.=E2=80=9D = Process praise=20 keeps students focused, not on something called = ability=20 that they may or may not have and that magically = creates=20 success or failure, but on processes they can = all engage=20 in to learn.

Motivated to Learn

Finding that a growth = mind-set creates=20 motivation and resilience=E2=80=94and leads to = higher=20 achievement=E2=80=94we sought to develop an = intervention that=20 would teach this mind-set to students. We = decided to aim=20 our intervention at students who were making the = transition to 7th grade because this is a time = of great=20 vulnerability. School often gets more difficult = in 7th=20 grade, grading becomes more stringent, and the=20 environment becomes more impersonal. Many = students take=20 stock of themselves and their intellectual = abilities at=20 this time and decide whether they want to be = involved=20 with school. Not surprisingly, it is often a = time of=20 disengagement and plunging achievement.

We performed our = intervention in a New=20 York City junior high school in which many = students were=20 struggling with the transition and were showing=20 plummeting grades. If students learned a growth=20 mind-set, we reasoned, they might be able to = meet this=20 challenge with increased, rather than decreased, = effort.=20 We therefore developed an eight-session workshop = in=20 which both the control group and the = growth-mind-set=20 group learned study skills, time management = techniques,=20 and memory strategies (Blackwell et al., 2007). = However,=20 in the growth-mind-set intervention, students = also=20 learned about their brains and what they could = do to=20 make their intelligence grow.

They learned that the brain = is like a=20 muscle=E2=80=94the more they exercise it, the = stronger it=20 becomes. They learned that every time they try = hard and=20 learn something new, their brain forms new = connections=20 that, over time, make them smarter. They learned = that=20 intellectual development is not the natural = unfolding of=20 intelligence, but rather the formation of new=20 connections brought about through effort and=20 learning.

Students were riveted by = this=20 information. The idea that their intellectual = growth was=20 largely in their hands fascinated them. In fact, = even=20 the most disruptive students suddenly sat still = and took=20 notice, with the most unruly boy of the lot = looking up=20 at us and saying, =E2=80=9CYou mean I don't have = to be=20 dumb?=E2=80=9D

Indeed, the growth-mind-set = message=20 appeared to unleash students' motivation. = Although both=20 groups had experienced a steep decline in their = math=20 grades during their first months of junior high, = those=20 receiving the growth-mind-set intervention = showed a=20 significant rebound. Their math grades improved. = Those=20 in the control group, despite their excellent = study=20 skills intervention, continued their = decline.

What's more, the = teachers=E2=80=94who were=20 unaware that the intervention workshops = differed=E2=80=94singled=20 out three times as many students in the = growth-mindset=20 intervention as showing marked changes in = motivation.=20 These students had a heightened desire to work = hard and=20 learn. One striking example was the boy who = thought he=20 was dumb. Before this experience, he had never = put in=20 any extra effort and often didn't turn his = homework in=20 on time. As a result of the training, he worked = for=20 hours one evening to finish an assignment early = so that=20 his teacher could review it and give him a = chance to=20 revise it. He earned a B+ on the = assignment (he=20 had been getting Cs and lower = previously).

Other researchers have = obtained=20 similar findings with a growth-mind-set = intervention.=20 Working with junior high school students, Good, = Aronson,=20 and Inzlicht (2003) found an increase in math = and=20 English achievement test scores; working with = college=20 students, Aronson, Fried, and Good (2002) found = an=20 increase in students' valuing of academics, = their=20 enjoyment of schoolwork, and their grade point=20 averages.

To facilitate delivery of = the=20 growth-mind-set workshop to students, we = developed an=20 interactive computer-based version of the = intervention=20 called Brainology. Students work through = six=20 modules, learning about the brain, visiting = virtual=20 brain labs, doing virtual brain experiments, = seeing how=20 the brain changes with learning, and learning = how they=20 can make their brains work better and grow = smarter.

We tested our initial = version in 20=20 New York City schools, with encouraging results. = Almost=20 all students (anonymously polled) reported = changes in=20 their study habits and motivation to learn = resulting=20 directly from their learning of the growth = mind-set. One=20 student noted that as a result of the animation = she had=20 seen about the brain, she could actually = =E2=80=9Cpicture the=20 neurons growing bigger as they make more = connections.=E2=80=9D=20 One student referred to the value of effort: = =E2=80=9CIf you do=20 not give up and you keep studying, you can find = your way=20 through.=E2=80=9D

Adolescents often see school = as a=20 place where they perform for teachers who then = judge=20 them. The growth mind-set changes that = perspective and=20 makes school a place where students vigorously = engage in=20 learning for their own benefit.

Going Forward

Our research shows that = educators=20 cannot hand students confidence on a silver = platter by=20 praising their intelligence. Instead, we can = help them=20 gain the tools they need to maintain their = confidence in=20 learning by keeping them focused on the = process=20 of achievement.

Maybe we have produced a = generation of=20 students who are more dependent, fragile, and = entitled=20 than previous generations. If so, it's time for = us to=20 adopt a growth mind-set and learn from our = mistakes.=20 It's time to deliver interventions that will = truly boost=20 students' motivation, resilience, and = learning.

References

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Binet, A. (1909/1973). = Les id=C3=A9es=20 modernes sur les enfants [Modern ideas on = children].=20 Paris: Flamarion. (Original work published = 1909)

Blackwell, L., = Trzesniewski, K.,=20 & Dweck, C. S. (2007). Implicit theories of=20 intelligence predict achievement across an = adolescent=20 transition: A longitudinal study and an = intervention.=20 Child Development, 78, = 246=E2=80=93263.

Cimpian, A., Arce, H., = Markman, E.=20 M., & Dweck, C. S. (2007). Subtle linguistic = cues=20 impact children's motivation. Psychological = Science,=20 18, 314=E2=80=93316.

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